Honolulu, Hawaii - The annexation of Hawaii by the United States remains one of the most contentious chapters in American and Hawaiian history. A tale of economic interests, political maneuvering, and imperial ambition, it was marked by the overthrow of a sovereign monarchy, the disenfranchisement of Native Hawaiians, and the glaring absence of a public referendum on the islands' fate. This article explores the complex events leading to Hawaii's annexation, the motivations behind it, and the voices that were ignored in the process.
Hawaii’s strategic location in the Pacific and its fertile lands made it an attractive target for American traders, missionaries, and sugar plantation owners in the 19th century. After the arrival of Christian missionaries in the early 1800s, American economic and cultural influence in Hawaii grew exponentially. By the mid-19th century, Hawaii had become deeply entwined with the United States economically, primarily due to the sugar trade.
The Reciprocity Treaty of 1875 between Hawaii and the United States allowed Hawaiian sugar to enter the U.S. market duty-free, solidifying Hawaii’s dependence on American markets. However, this relationship came at a cost. American business interests, particularly sugar planters, gained significant economic and political power, sidelining Native Hawaiian voices in governance.
Queen Liliuokalani ascended to the Hawaiian throne in 1891 after the death of her brother, King Kalakaua. A staunch advocate for Hawaiian sovereignty, she sought to reduce foreign influence and restore the powers of the monarchy, which had been curtailed by the Bayonet Constitution of 1887—a document forced upon King Kalakaua by American and European elites.
In January 1893, a group of American and European business leaders, supported by U.S. Minister to Hawaii John L. Stevens and U.S. Marines from the USS Boston, staged a coup against Queen Liliuokalani. Facing the threat of violence and believing the United States would intervene to restore her authority, the queen temporarily abdicated under protest.
The provisional government, led by Sanford B. Dole, took control of Hawaii and immediately sought annexation by the United States.
President Grover Cleveland, upon taking office in March 1893, was deeply troubled by the events in Hawaii. He commissioned an investigation, known as the Blount Report, which concluded that the overthrow was illegal and that the United States had played a significant role in the coup.
Cleveland opposed annexation and attempted to restore Queen Liliuokalani to the throne. However, the provisional government, now rebranded as the Republic of Hawaii, refused to comply. As political pressures mounted and Hawaii’s strategic importance became clearer, the issue stalled until President William McKinley took office in 1897.
By the late 1890s, the geopolitical landscape had shifted. The Spanish-American War of 1898 underscored Hawaii’s value as a strategic military asset in the Pacific, with Pearl Harbor providing a crucial naval base.
President McKinley favored annexation but could not secure the two-thirds Senate majority required for a treaty of annexation. Instead, Congress passed the Newlands Resolution in July 1898, a joint resolution requiring only a simple majority in both houses.
On August 12, 1898, Hawaii was officially annexed by the United States without a formal treaty or a referendum among the Hawaiian people.
One of the most glaring injustices of Hawaii's annexation was the complete lack of consultation with the Hawaiian people. Despite protests from Native Hawaiians, including the Kūʻē Petitions (1897-1898), where over 21,000 Native Hawaiians signed against annexation, their voices were ignored.
The petitions represented a significant portion of Hawaii’s Native population at the time, demonstrating overwhelming opposition to annexation. However, the U.S. Congress dismissed these petitions, prioritizing military and economic interests over the will of the Hawaiian people.
In the wake of annexation, Hawaii became a U.S. territory in 1900 and eventually the 50th state of the United States in 1959. The decades following annexation brought profound cultural, social, and political changes. Native Hawaiians faced land dispossession, cultural suppression, and the erosion of their language and traditions.
For many Native Hawaiians, annexation remains a painful and unresolved historical wound. The absence of a referendum symbolizes a broader pattern of disenfranchisement and the suppression of Hawaiian sovereignty.
The annexation of Hawaii was not the result of a fair or democratic process. It was driven by economic interests, imperial ambitions, and geopolitical strategy. The lack of a referendum denied the Hawaiian people their right to self-determination, and the consequences of that denial continue to reverberate today.
In 1993, on the 100th anniversary of the overthrow, the U.S. Congress passed the Apology Resolution, formally acknowledging the U.S. role in the illegal overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom and expressing regret. However, this resolution did not change Hawaii’s political status or address the deeper issues of sovereignty and self-determination.
As Hawaii remains a vibrant state within the United States, the legacy of annexation serves as a reminder of the complex and often uncomfortable history of American expansionism—and the voices that were left unheard in the process.
